The Development and Principles of Editing

Introduction: In this post I will cover the history and principles of editing as well as analyzing a short clip and demonstrating the editing techniques that are used throughout and the effects they have on the audience.

The history and development of editing: Editing is the process of combining various takes from various angles to create, in most cases, a comprehensive sequence of events. In the early days of film 1890-98 all films were shot as one continuous take with no transitions. Film was a new and exciting medium that was not like anything else at the time meaning that audiences were easily amused, this is why early films were incredibly simplistic, consisting of daily events like cars going down a street or a train passing. In 1898 British director Robert W. Paul released Come Along, Do! which featured a couple outside an art exhibition and as they enter the film cuts to the inside of the exhibition to show what the couple are doing; this was the first film to feature more than one shot.

A surviving still from Come Along, Do!

The Kuleshov effect: One of the earliest examples of juxtaposition in movies, Russian director Lev Kuleshov performed an experiment involving a shot of a man which was intercut with a bowl of soup, a child and a casket.The experiment was performed to show directors that having two shots that look related or as if they are in the same place sub-consciously created a link between the two shots in the audiences mind. This experiment made directors realize that using methods such as juxtaposition they could shoot their movies over longer periods of time and in various locations.

Manual editing: In the late 19th century and early 20th century all editing was done manually by skilled workers. The process involved physically 'cutting' (hence the term cut) and sticking strips of film together to create a series of events. The film that was edited was a copy of the original negative which allowed editors to experiment with the film without fear of making mistakes.

An early upright editing machine, the Moviola.











Digital Editing: When digital cameras started appearing on the market editors needed software on the computers in order to edit the footage together, and thus digital editing began. Unlike physical editing digital did not use reels of film meaning that it took up less space an eliminated the need to wait for 'dailies' and create copies of the original negative. Digital editing is the most common form of editing today due to the availability of computers. However, the transition between physical and digital editing was not smooth some directors still primarily shoot on film which means they have to convert the film into digital format in order for the editors to edit the footage; digital editing is done on software such as Final Cut, Avid and Premiere pro.

In camera editing: This is a very low budget form of editing which involves shooting scenes in order of continuity to remove the need of editing software. This method is more limited and not as effective as traditional digital editing but is considerably cheaper.

Transitions:

Cut: The most simple transition which involves jumping from one piece of footage to the next.

Fade: The clip fades to black or to white to be used as a transition or to signify the end or start of a movie

Dissolve: One piece of footage fades to another, the fade is used to show the passing of time.

Wipe: One piece of footage 'pushes' the other out of frame

These are the most common forms of transitions. Cuts and and dissolves are primarily used for story telling as they are the most effective.

Other more uncommon transitions include:

Graphic match cut: One object is shown as the clip fades/cuts to another object that may be in an entirely different location but will look similar to the original object. For example, the shower scene in Psycho uses a graphic match cut between the characters eye and the drain in the shower.

Morph: commonly used to show the passing of a long amount of time or in order to relate two seemingly unrelated objects, this visual effect distorts an object/person until it looks like something/someone else, an example of this effect is a scene from Saving Private Ryan in which the young soldier transforms or morphs into the older version of himself.

Clip analysis



0:00-0:05 The clip fades up from black (see fade in transitions) from the previous scene (not shown) to show a small gas station. This is an establishing shot it shows the audience the location in which the scene will take place.

0:14 The conversation between the two characters begins; the directors have taken care not to break the 180 degree rule since the shop keeper is always frame left while the antagonist is frame right. This method ensures that the audience can follow the conversation without confusion.

0:22 The two characters begin a conversation with the shopkeeper asking about the weather where the antagonist came from the antagonist replies with "What business is it of yours where I'm from? frendo". 0:31 Cuts to an OTS of the antagonist showing the reaction of the shopkeeper, the audience can clearly see that the shopkeeper is visibly worried/frightened by the antagonist's remark.  Throughout the scene the camera cuts between two angles each showing one of the characters this method is called shot-reverse shot, which means the camera cuts between the two or more angles to show the character's reactions and emotions. This method allows for the audience to see the build up of tension in the scene based on the reactions of the shopkeeper and antagonist.

1:03 The shopkeeper asks the antagonist if he needs anything else to which he replies "you already asked me that". The angle remains the same from 1:05-1:15 to show the shopkeepers reaction as he begins to worry about what the antagonist might do. Showing the audience the shopkeepers reaction helps to further develop the tension and suspense in this scene. This particular take is approximately 10 seconds, this is considered a very long time for a feature length film since they will likely have more than one camera on set allowing them to switch between different angles this extended take is likely deliberate to reflect the tense situation unfolding in the scene and allows for the audience to study the shopkeepers reactions to the antagonists dialogue.

1:23-1:34 This shot is seen from the perspective of the shopkeeper (POV shot) as the antagonist continues speaking this shot allows for the audience to see the antagonist from the shopkeepers perspective and to allow the audience to relate to how the shopkeeper views the antagonist. Once again this is a very long take, much like the previously mentioned shot this is likely deliberate to show the emotion or in this case lack of, that the antagonist displays.

1:35 and 1:39 are both POV shots from the antagonist perspective which exists for the same reason as the other POV shots, this time we can see that the shopkeeper is visibly frightened by the antagonist and seeing it from his perspective creates further tension and suspense. The POV to OTS transitions also count as eye-line match shots; eye-line match shots show a character looking at something out of frame and the next shot shows what he/she was looking at, in this sequence this is used when the characters are looking at each other.

2:55 The antogonist flips a coin and in the next shot we see him slam it down on the counter. This method is called a match on action, the first shows the beginning of the action and the next shows the end this is important in film as it allows for the audience to know who performed an action without having to show the whole thing. The coin toss is shown in shorter takes than the rest of the clip to show a break in pace. The coin is shown in a close up possibly to signify it's importance in the scene, throughout this scene the only close ups used show the counter where the character puts the coin and candy wrapper. The rest of the shots are almost entirely medium and medium close shots.

3:05 Onwards - The takes become a lot longer in particular the angle that shows the shopkeeper, the length of the takes serves the pacing of the scene the longer the takes the slower the movie feels this allows for the suspense to build continuously as the audience wait for the pace to change. This method is extremely effective at building suspense as it feels like the takes are almost too long. the lingering takes are effective reaction shots which show how the characters are reacting to each other throughout the scene.

4:00 The pacing changes as the shopkeeper correctly guesses the coin toss. This serves as relief for the audience since the previous shots were long and drawn out these were short and quick as if to mimic the shopkeepers sigh of relief.

4:24 The scene ends with a fade to black to tell the audience that the scene is over and also serves to ease the tension built in the scene for both the characters and audience.

The clip does not feature any wipes or dissolves as I previously mentioned cuts and fades (to black or to white) are the primary transitions to tell a story, if used incorrectly wipes and dissolves may detract from the feel and theme of this scene, as some agree that they break immersion of the movie for example a star wipe after a particularly tense scene in a drama can easily break immersion in the world of the film, less noticeable fades however can serve for a smooth transition  

Screen time: The use of shot reverse shot and POV shots allow for the characters to have almost the exact same amount of screen time, being able to see both characters in the scene allows for the audience to gage reactions of both of the characters in the scene. The shared screen time also allows for the audience to not know who is the most 'important' in the scene this helps to further induce tension as we are not sure of the outcome since the general rule is less screen time = less important.

Conclusion: In conclusion this clip uses POV shots and shot reverse shots effectively to generate huge amounts of suspense and tension throughout the scene. The variations of shot lengths allows for the generation of pace for the rest of the scene and movie, with periodic 'breaks' in the pacing for particularly tense moments such as the aforementioned coin toss.

In this assignment we were tasked to cover certain uses and functions of editing techniques below I will cover the techniques that can be seen in the clip as well as any others by using examples from other media texts.

Shot variation: As I mentioned earlier this scene uses very few different shots, this is likely deliberate in order to not detract from the tension and suspense in the scene as too many different types of shots would distract the audience from the dialogue and reactions of the characters.

Montage: A montage is a series of clips cut together usually used to show the passing of a large amount of time. Montages have been used for decades but became a huge part of pop culture and parody with the famous training montage scenes from Rocky (see below).



Providing and withholding information: The clip I chose is a good example of withholding information in a scene. This effect is used to allow the audience to make up their own theories and reasons for what is happening in the scene. For example, when the antagonist tosses the coin and asks the shop keeper to "call it" he asks what he is calling it for to which the antagonist replies "everything". This allows for the audience to create their own meaning as to what the antagonist meant when he said "everything" was it a reward or a punishment. The rest of the movie also withholds information from the audience, as to the identity of the antagonist, with very little details about his past or plans this lead for some audience members to even speculate that the antagonist may be a supernatural character.



Parallel editing/cross cutting: Parallel editing is when a film or sequence cuts between two events that are occurring at the same time. The two events are related either literally or metaphorically, the two may converge at some point or there relation may be strictly metaphorical for the sake of exposition or story telling. This clip from Inception uses parralel editing to relate two events from the movie occurring concurrently one within the real world and one within a dream.

Editing rhythm: As I briefly mentioned the length of the takes and variations of shot types can be used to alter the pace of the sequence. For example, short takes and varied shots will be used for action sequences while longer takes will be used for dramas. The editing rhythm can be deliberately tampered  with in order to demonstrate a character being disoriented or to signify a disruption in the equilibrium.

Construction of the time and space of the story , both diegetically and implied: Diegesis refers to anything within the world of the film, so for example the sequence may show a time lapse of the sun setting or rising in order to show the passing of time. A long amount of time passing can be shown using a dissolve as I mentioned earlier, if a character gets on a train at one station and the clip then dissolves to show the character at another station at a different time of day and we the audience can assume that a long time has passed.



Cutting to soundtrack: Mainly used at the ending of scenes or at the ending of the movie cutting to the soundtrack is a literal term meaning the footage will fade or cut to a new piece of footage or a black screen and during this cut music will begin to play this can be used to set the mood of the next scene or reflect on the mood of the previous scenes. This technique is commonly used at the end of the movie when the credits roll, they will almost always be accompanied by music. Another noteworthy example is the Bond franchise in which the opening of the film will be shown and then will cut to the soundtrack usually accompanied by a pseudo 'music video'.



Multiple points of view: This effect can be used to show multiple characters perspectives on the overall story line or of a certain event. For example, one character may view the stories villains actions as evil or wrong while the villain may believe that his actions are justified or moral, thus creating conflict within the world of the movie as well as among the audience. This could also refer to the camera angles in a scene, such as a fight scene, which will utilize multiple angles in order to create pace or simply show certain actions.

Cutaways:Commonly used in dramas and horror, cutaways can be used as a form of pseudo censorship or for metaphorical comparisons. For example, a character in a horror movie can be shown walking down the road and then the sequence cuts to a danger of death sign to signify that the character is in danger. Another example may be a character being killed in a particularly horrible way for example just before the character is killed the clip will cut to something else i.e a graveyard or even the reaction of another character in the scene in order to show how the other characters react (reaction shot) or even to keep the films rating down by not showing violence/blood.

Jump-cut: Jump cuts in general signify an error in filming, jump cuts make the audience think that some frames are missing in a scene and are likely used to cover up any mistakes in the movie. However, jump cuts can be used deliberately to show distortion or confusion in a character, or to remove unnecessary actions of frames. This technique has been taken on by a lot of vloggers on YouTube in order to keep the audience interested by constantly jump cutting. Jump cuts are viewed as unprofessional in the film industry and are normally indicative of a mistake or reflect low budgets or poor timekeeping.